Location-based
Services and Personal Navigation in Mobile Information Society
Antti RAINIO, Coordinator of NAVI Programme,
Navinova Ltd., Finland
Key words: personal navigation, location-based
service, mobile information society, mobile Internet.
Abstract
Mobile information society is developing rapidly as
mobile telecommunications moves from second to third generation
technology. The Internet and its services are coming to wireless
devices. The convergence of content and technology is deepening and
the market is being reorganised. Different actors want to reserve
their place in the mobile digital economy.
Location-based services and personal navigation are
parts of mobile multimedia services. Personal navigation is a service
concept in which advanced mobile telecommunications allow people find
out where they are, where they can find the products and services that
they need and how they can get to a destination.
The services will help people to navigate on daily
errands, on work-related tasks and journeys as well as at leisure time
hobbies. There are several application areas like mobile work,
shopping and delivery, hobbies and sports, tourism and culture, public
transport and safety. The guidance will be implemented on the basis of
mobile multimedia and it should be available in both outdoor and
indoor environments. The services will be based on generic technology
like portable devices, wireless networks and location services as well
as map and route servers.
The creation of usable mobile devices and wireless
services will require intensive research, product development, trials
and training, but also infrastructure investment and, if necessary,
new legislation.
Co-operation between the public and private sectors
as well as user communities is a requirement for beneficial
development. In Finland the whole value chain i.e. hardware and
software manufacturers, telecom operators, media companies, public
authorities, universities and other research institutes as well as
venture capital are taken part in the Personal Navigation Programme.
A mass market of digital maps and other geographic
information will start soon, when the number of mobile terminals will
turn to be bigger than terminals using fixed lines.
TERMINOLOGY
Personal navigation means determining an
individual’s location (positioning), selecting and providing
guidance on the required route and mode of transport to a desired
destination in either an outdoor or indoor environment, using
geographic or spatial information, and information on location-based
phenomena and services.
Location-based service (LBS) (i.e.
position-dependent service) means a service that can be found easily
on the basis of its described location with the aid of different kinds
of indexing and guidance services. In connection with personal
navigation, location-based services form the kernel content and they
can be found using the location data of a mobile phone as the search
criterion.
Location service (LCS) (i.e. mobile location
service) generally means determining a location and, in connection
with personal navigation, especially determining the location of a
mobile phone supported by a mobile telecommunications network.
Examples of standard-based positioning methods in
cellular networks are Cell-ID, Enhanced Observed Time Difference (E-OTD)
and Assisted Global Positioning System (A-GPS).
1. MOBILE INTERNET
The use of mobile phones is growing rapidly.
According to the forecasts of mobile phone manufacturers and the
latest market surveys, there will be over a billion mobile phones in
use by the year 2003. At the same time the mobile phone is being
developed into a terminal device capable of accessing network services
such as e-mail and e-commerce services. Within one year the number of
mobile Internet capable wireless terminals will turn to be bigger than
terminals using fixed lines.
Conventional mobile phones are being joined by
palm-top computers and personal digital agents (PDA) that utilise the
mobile phone network or wireless local area networks (WLAN). Terminal
devices that are embedded in clothing or in some other way worn on the
body, i.e. wearable computers, are also being developed. Digital
television and digital radio will in the fullness of time be offered
as a portable terminal device.
The main trends in mobile telecommunications are
- Wireless data transfer
- Mobile multimedia and mobile Internet
Wireless data transfer is limited to the
frequencies reserved for it. The growth in volume of traffic will
require methods of transmitting information based on more efficient
digital data transfer. The new services will be implemented via a
wireless packet network (GPRS, General Packet Radio Service) which
will offer approximately the same data transfer rate as Internet modem
users are now accustomed at homes to (approx. 50 kbit/s). The
third-generation mobile telecommunication network (UMTS, Universal
Mobile Telecommunication System) will provide 5-10 times more
efficient data transfer links (approx. 300 kbit/s) and even more.
Mobile data networks are also being joined by
wireless local area networks (WLAN) and other wireless data transfer
systems (Bluetooth). These wireless data transfer methods operate in
different bands and will offer already much faster links than mobile
phone networks (WLAN 11 Mbit/s, Bluetooth approx. 700 kbit/s),
although their coverage is only ten or one hundred metres. Bluetooth
can also offer a technical basis for the personal network, when a user
has several devices.
Digital television (DVB, Digital Video
Broadcasting) and digital radio (DAB, Digital Audio Broadcasting) are
offering an efficient one-directional data transfer channel (DVB-T as
fast as 20 Mbit/s and DAB approx. 1 Mbit/s), which is reserved mainly
for radio and television broadcasting, but can be partly utilised for
other data transfer.
In mobile multimedia and mobile Internet the aim is
to bring electronic services to wireless terminal devices. Even though
the data transfer capacity of mobile phone networks will grow in the
near future, its exploitation may be limited by service cost even in
the future.
The leading mobile phone manufacturers are
marketing the abbreviation mmm (MMM, Mobile Multimedia Mode) as a
sibling for www (World Wide Web). The development of mobile multimedia
will receive added impetus from the cHTML (compact HyperText Markup
Language) and the WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) standard, which
in data transfer can be based on many different technologies, ranging
from text messages and data calls to GPRS and UMTS services of the
future. cHTML and WAP has been designed and is being developed
especially with a eye to the mobile context and the limited capacity
of wireless data transfer. In the future the Internet and WAP will
converge. The common denominator is XML (eXtensible Markup Language),
which has been used to specify WAP’s Wireless Markup Language (WML).
The starting point for the development of the Internet is the XML-based
eXtensible HyperText Markup Language (XHTML). The data content will be
well defined and structured by using XML-schema.
The complexity of portable terminal devices and
data transfer rates poses its own challenges to the production of
mobile multimedia and the development of a user interface that meets
the scalability requirement. It must be possible to access the service
using different terminal devices and via different types of data
transfer networks. The user agent profile (UAPROF) standards will
support the implementation of scalable services.
The introduction of innovations often follows a
path where consumers find ways of using a new tool that the developers
of the technology had not envisaged. In business and working life, new
tools and operating models are traditionally justified on the basis of
the savings, benefits and efficiency gains that they generate. Often
initially expensive equipment and applications developed for
professional users eventually find utility and lifestyle applications
for consumers as the market grows and costs fall. However, the mobile
telecommunications market and electronic services on data networks
have developed to such an extent that the consumer market already
exists as a point of departure. As disposable income and leisure time
have increased, the needs of consumers have become increasingly
individualised, so it is difficult to predict what kind of tool or
service will achieve wide popularity. For example, this manifests
itself as difficulty in forecasting the needs of Internet users.
Consumers and different recreational user groups
may have a significant role to play in the creation of new markets and
services. Examples in the realm of mobile telecommunications include
the birth of the text message culture and the popularity of mobile
phone ring melody services, which are based on the idea that the
consumer produces the content him/herself. One can envisage similar
phenomena occurring as mobile multimedia develops and, like the
Internet, wireless networks offer a platform for the assembly and
distribution of content. The needs of content production and
distribution may be both individual and collective, and the background
motives may vary from ideological to economic. The thirst for
experiences and the need to share them with others have become as
important as practical utility.
2. USER NEEDS FOR LOCATION-BASED SERVICES
The location-based services (LBS) will help the
user to find not only locations, services and products, but also the
resources and members of organisations. Amongst other things,
navigation services must allow the user to effortlessly determine
his/her own position, locate a destination, and receive guidance on
how to get there. The services to be developed will provide the user
with guidance on the use of different transport modes and the routes
reserved for them, and will also meet user needs in areas related to
travel, tourism and recreational pursuits.
The navigation services will answer the following
questions:
-
Where is the user him/herself located?
-
Where is the desired site or service located?
-
What different modes of transport can take the
user to his/her desired destination?
-
Where are the friends, customers, resources or
assets located?
The services should be easy-to-use. The separate
development of information services for individual modes of transport
is not enough. Rather, the aim should be to satisfy the needs of users
more broadly – at least "door-to-door" and "just on
time". The services associated with the movement of people will
focus in mobile consumers but also in occupational use.
3 NAVIGATION TECHNOLOGY AND SERVICES
The development of personal navigation services can
be seen as three trends:
- vehicle navigation
- personal navigation in outdoor environments
- personal navigation in urban and indoor environments
In addition to these trends tracking of vehicles
and other valuable mobile resources as well as persons and pets are
also important.
Figure 1. The evolution of the
personal navigation.
Vehicle navigation has been under development for
twenty years and the work continues. The point of departure was
route-finding services especially in unfamiliar surroundings, but
information serving the free flow and safety of the growing volume of
daily traffic has also become important. In the 1980s vehicle
navigation began to take shape as a system in which different types of
positioning methods (compass & distance meter, inertia, satellite,
...) could be used to display the vehicle’s position on an
electronic map of the road and street network, and the driver could be
given directions accordingly. At first the system’s database was
quite static (CD-ROM), but with the development of wireless data
transfer in the 1990s the systems have been developed in the direction
of utilising real-time data (congestion, weather conditions, etc.).
Vehicle navigation has matured into a consumer
product and is now in widespread use in the United States and
especially in Japan. Annual sales in Europe are currently running at
about half a million units. The data content and transfer format of
road maps is the subject of standardisation work, and in Europe the
GDG standard (Geographic Data File, ISO 14825) is widely applied.
Personal navigation has as its starting point the
user’s need to move about without getting lost in unfamiliar
surroundings regardless of the mode of transport, and to receive
guidance appropriate to his/her needs and circumstances at any given
time. Wireless data transfer allows the user to be offered value added
services such as information concerning his/her position, e.g. a map,
or information on different kinds of services available in his/her
vicinity. One might expect the development of the car phone into a
pocket phone will be similarly repeated in navigation applications and
products.
It is already technically possible to embed
satellite positioning and other positioning methods into the mobile
phone. The computing necessary in satellite positioning (GPS, Global
Positioning System) is being carried out by smaller and smaller
microprocessors with lower and lower power consumption. In addition to
satellite positioning, the network positioning of mobile phones, i.e.
positioning using the base stations of the mobile phone network, is
already available and new methods will be standardised. Cell-ID
supported with timing advance data as well as signal level data is a
part of existing networks. More advanced methods like "time of
arrival" (TOA) and "enhanced observed time difference"
(E-OTD) are standardised. Network assisted satellite positioning
(A-GPS) is also being developed as a hybrid method. In tests assisted
GPS is working even in ordinary living houses and office buildings,
but the accuracy suffers of the signal reflections in built areas.
The development of methods has been given added
impetus by a law passed in the United States requiring that from
October 2001 it must be possible to determine the location from which
emergency calls are made by mobile phone with an accuracy of one
hundred metres. The EU Commission is considering the implementation of
a similar directive from the beginning of 2003.
Indoor services extend personal navigation services
to the indoor environment. The user can obtain more detailed guidance
and information on the sites in which he/she is interested. The
technical basis for the development is provided by rapidly developing
wireless local area networks (WLAN, Bluetooth) and their associated
positioning methods. If the consumer’s terminal device supports the
use of a wireless local area network in addition to the mobile phone
network, it opens up many opportunities for indoor services. A local
area network can offer site-specific "local information" and
other services such as access to the Internet.
Different kinds of guidance and marketing
information and their linkage to a certain location in a department
store, museum, terminus and other such public spaces may be the most
important aspect of personal navigation. Indoor services can also be
connected to a building access control system and to control
automation. The premises could be developed into an active environment
in which "intelligent" objects know their positions and if
necessary can communicate that information to the consumer or to some
management system.
4 PERSONAL NAVIGATION SERVICE SYSTEM
Personal navigation services mean services which
support the positioning of an individual, the selection and finding of
a desired location, and guidance to the location on the basis of
different modes of transport. The navigation services can provide
guidance in indoor as well as outdoor environments. Even though many
aspects of the services will be locally and nationally implemented,
the service supply will be based on common international standards.
Figure 2. The personal navigation
service system.
Usability
The technical usability of services are primarily
affected by the
- user interface
- terminal devices
- information content and structure
The user interface can be text-based, graphical,
auditory, sensory (haptic) or a combination of the above. The
graphical user interface is leading the way, but it is being
challenged by the rapid development of speech control. The size of the
device and its display as well as other characteristics (e.g.
graphical resolution and number of colours) set limitations on the use
of services such as maps. The operating environment and situation
(e.g. vehicle control) can also significantly limit the use of
services and set special requirements for the user interface. For
example, the user interface and other forms of guidance, such as
different kinds of graphical and spoken turning instructions, suit
different kinds of usage situations. The service needs of the users
vary greatly depending on the specific context of work or leisure-time
usage. The different lifestyles of the users in themselves generate
different kinds of needs and requirements for the content and
usability of services.
Terminal devices are being rapidly developed with
regards processing, memory and data transfer capacities, display
technologies and power consumption. Personal navigation services will
be accessed using different terminal devices, such as the mobile
phone, the personal digital agents and digital television, typically
with the aid of generic browsers. Portable devices based on wireless
data transfer are best placed owing to the nature and purpose of the
services, although fixed network terminal devices will find uses,
especially in the planning of journeys either in advance or at
suitable service points along the route. The technical positioning of
the terminal device will bring many opportunities to the development
of services and significant value added to the terminal device user.
Wearable computers are one trend of development in terminal devices.
Information content and structure have a
significant effect on service usability. The clarity, readability and
understandability of information is underlined especially when using
navigation and other telematic devices in traffic, e.g. when driving a
vehicle. The information must not be contradictory, nor may it lead to
incorrect actions and thus dangerous situations, nor may it overload
the user cognitively so as to interfere with some primary function. As
the devices become more versatile, the information and functions must
be structured so that the risk of user overload is avoided.
The usability of mobile multimedia services is
affected by the entire service chain from data acquisition, transfer
and delivery to the end-user. Regardless of the complexity of the
service chain, the user should always be well informed about the
quality of the information he/she receives and about who is
responsible for its quality (e.g. the accuracy and up-to-dateness of
maps, hours of service availability, price tariffs, etc.).
The short time window during which it must be
possible to transfer the message to the user’s terminal device and
deliver it through the limited user interface in an understandable
form is a special requirement of personal navigation.
Services
The supply of services is visible to the users as
different service applications, in the background of which can be
generic services and technologies (data management, customer
administration, data security,…).
Service applications can support all modes of
transport (walking, skiing, vehicles such as the wheelchair, bicycle,
motorbike, skidoo, car, taxi, bus, train, ship, plane, etc.). The
services can include address, route, timetable, weather,
accommodation, restaurant and other guidance, traffic and travel
services as well as descriptions of any commercial and public services
to be positioned.
The services can help the user to find different
kinds of open service points (pharmacies, service stations, flower
shops, restaurants, etc.) and different kinds of events (concerts,
exhibitions, sporting events, cultural and religious events, etc.).
The services may be associated with different hobbies (rambling,
sport, nature, fishing, hunting, boating, caravanning, the arts,
etc.). The service content can be information on different kinds of
sites and activities (nature trail, shopping trips, sight-seeing
excursions, etc.). The nature of the information can be travel
directions, historical and cultural information, marketing and product
information, programme and event information, official regulations,
etc. Positioning in the indoor environment will facilitate different
kinds of guidance services when looking for specific indoor areas and
products, as well as background and product information services when
they are found (exhibitions, fairs, department stores, museums, etc.).
Safety is enhanced by the automatic transmission of
the terminal device’s location data when making emergency calls.
Positioning and the transmission of location data can also be applied
in connection with different kinds of orders (e.g. ordering a taxi,
consignment of goods) and when trying to trace a lost person, animal
or object. The terminal device user may also need to send information
on his/her location to the home, workplace, friends, etc.
Generic services mean services that are not tied to
any specific application. Positioning, map and route services can be
regarded as generic navigation services. Moreover, general services
based on the above could be the transmission of location data to
another terminal device or service centre, and surveillance based on
positioning.
The definition of location by means of co-ordinates
is a universal generic solution and it supports the standard use of
map and other location data in different applications. Maps, aerial
and satellite photographs, and other types of location data, including
three-dimensional models, already exist but converting them into
navigation services will require refinement of the data and product
development of the services. The quality, up-to-dateness and detail of
the material can always be improved within the limits permitted by
costs and benefits. Conversions between the co-ordinate system and the
street address system are generally necessary. The limitation of map
information on the basis of the user’s location or the site he/she
is looking for is also a generic application, in which not only
location data but also any speed and direction data in the case of a
mobile site can be exploited. Calculating the route between two or
more points using different criteria (shortest, quickest, cheapest,
"most interesting", etc.) is also by nature a generic task.
5. VALUE NETWORK
The main points of departure for the construction
of the value network are
- vertical partnership and horizontal competition in the value
chain
- sectoral roles and collaboration
The parties involved in the personal navigation
value chain and network are
- equipment manufacturers
- telecom operators and service operators
- data processing service providers and software houses
- new media companies, publishers and other content producers and
developers
- the land survey and population register authorities, other
national and local authorities (transport, safety, emergency
services, health care, electronic public services).
- service chains of different sectors (trade, tourism, restaurant,
service stations, etc.) and self-employed transport operators.
- different official and unofficial user organisations
- research institutes, universities and colleges
- standardisation and other co-operation bodies
Telecom and other service operators or
organisations that already have an extensive and well-established
customer base are regarded as the parties with the most potential as
providers of integrated services. The market can be constructed
vertically with, for example, telecom operators or equipment
manufacturers acting as the integrators and accelerators of service
supply. From the perspective of the consumers and market renewal in
the long term, it would be advantageous if the market were an open
network in which competition is ensured by several jointly acting
horizontal layers such as equipment manufacture, data transfer and
value added services.
Customers using navigation devices and services
will expect them to satisfy their basic everyday needs and their
desire for lifestyle and recreational services. Typical first-wave
users might be people working in occupations based on or requiring
mobility and consumers who can make use of navigation services in
their hobbies. As safety-enhancing and different kinds of special
services are developed, the elderly and physically disabled may form
an important user group. From the standpoint of market development it
would be important to identify at the earliest possible stage the
users’ fears and concerns of the new technology and to find
solutions that would allay them.
The service markets are likely to be simultaneously
local, national and global. The services will be implemented and
gradually diversified as the terminal devices and data transfer
technologies develop. The starting point should be a service interface
based on common international standards, which will promote
competition in the supply of both hardware and services. A mobile
portal architecture based on a local portal architecture that is
scalable to different terminal devices and covers both private and
public sector supply will be needed to ensure the supply of uniform
and usable services for mobile users.
The more extensive and diversified the service
supply becomes, the more necessary it will be for the user that
service indexing services are available. The user will be supported
initially by the service portals but later by meta data that positions
and describes the service. Then the services can be profiled and
specialist search engines can help the user to find the services that
best meet his/her needs.
The private, public and consumer sectors not only
play their own roles but also work together in close collaboration.
The supply of services consists of market goods, public goods and
"club goods" produced by the consumer sector itself. Inter-sectoral
collaboration is often necessary in the development of new services
and also in the production of goods. For example, companies can add
value to the public sector’s register and map data to meet consumer
needs. Companies can also provide servers and generic data management
solutions to serve as a basis for consumers’ "club goods",
and the public sector can support the creation of added value in their
own data resources and by updating the data associated with them.
Examples of synergistic collaboration areas include public transport,
recreation and sports, and travel information services.
The forms of collaboration between the public and
private sectors are still rather undeveloped in the process of adding
value to the public sector’s data resources. Rapid technological
development and convergence is continuously changing the market’s
starting points and giving rise to new markets for information
products and services. There is a need to experiment with different
kinds of collaboration models in the refinement of raw data and the
creation of new services. The role of micro-enterprises as innovators
of new products and businesses may be crucial. In the development of
content we will see the emergence of many new distribution channels
and the possibility to publish produced data content just once,
followed by automatic tailoring to different usage environments.
The input of consumer organisations is regarded as
possessing great potential, and their possible role as collectors and
updaters of information should be put to the test. Club goods may be
extremely important in recreational and life-style services, which may
account for a very significant share of the market for personal
navigation services. The provision of generic platforms to the social
innovators of user organisations may prove to be an important area of
product development.
6. REGULATION AND ETHICAL QUESTIONS
Regulation will play a role in guiding the
development of services. The handling of personal data in most
countries by the privacy protection and data security acts. The
monitoring and surveillance of a person is also subject to
interpretation of the criminal law concerning domicilary peace and
electronic surveillance. A law on the protection of privacy in working
life might exist in most countries and is valid in certain cases.
Other legal questions concern direct marketing, the ordering of
services, and consumer protection as well as the copyright of data
material used in the production of services, the protection of
databases and trademarks – and naturally patents.
The starting point for the use of navigation
services will be the initiative and permission of the customer or
his/her guardian. Obviously the mobile phone operator will be allowed
to position the customer’s mobile phone when the customer has given
his/her consent. The user him/herself must decide on the transmission
of his/her location data for the purpose of ordering a value added
service. The navigation service provider should clearly inform the
customer about the recipients of his/her location data and on what
conditions the information will be passed on.
If the customer so desires, he/she will therefore
make an agreement with the operator on the use of the location
service. The recipients of the location data will be specified in the
agreement.
The points of departure for the ethical audit of
navigation services are the behaviour, hopes and fears of the users.
Consumers have conflicting encounters with new products and they are
not always aware of what needs the products are supposed to satisfy.
The products gradually find unexpected uses and contribute towards
changing the culture. Key questions include what kind of human concept
or world view is in the background and whose interests does the
development serve.
Personal navigation throws up many ethical
questions and gives rise to many fears on the part of users. Will
there be an explosive growth in the amount of "tracking"
data and how will the use of location data for controlling consumers
be avoided? How can the user cover his tracks if necessary? There are
major differences between people and different groups in the adoption
of technology. Will those who quickly adopt the technology gain a
significant advantage over those who do not, and will the new services
lead to inequality? In the future will ordinary people be able to
manage without a navigator? How will the new technology change people
and the culture – will it lead to a helpless dependence on the
technology?
The following tensions and conflicts are common
when new innovations are encountered:
- Freedom of choice – Excessive dependence on technology
- Life control – Total chaos
- Social integration – Isolation
- Engagement – Alienation
- Efficiency – Inefficiency
- Satisfaction of needs – Creation of new needs
- Expertise – Lack of expertise
- New technology – Redundant technology
These conflicts and tensions are equally apparent
in individuals and in organisations.
7. PERSONAL NAVIGATION (NAVI) PROGRAMME IN FINLAND
Personal Navigation (NAVI) research and development
programme will include research, product and service development,
regulation, awareness activities, education, follow-up, co-ordination
and strategy work. The programme will last three years (2000–2002)
and target level for the overall budget is EUR 15–20 million, half
of which would be funded by the public sector. There are about 90
members most of which are enterprises in the NAVI Network covering the
whole value chain.
The programme consists of the following elements:
- Vertical applications
- Generic technologies
- Horizontal support projects
- Supplementary and user training
- Programme co-ordination
The application-specific pilot projects utilise
predominantly the same terminal devices and other generic
technologies. Largely the same questions and problems concerning
usability, service interfaces and regulation are encountered in the
pilot projects. It is therefore necessary to include in the programme,
on the one hand, horizontal support projects and, on the other, areas
of generic technology that will yield universal,
application-independent technical solutions. The development and
orientation of supplementary training in order to raise the level of
expert knowledge will be necessary in both technical questions and the
implementation of applications. It will also be necessary to train
different types of users in order to carry out trials and collect
experiences. The purpose of follow-up, evaluation and programme
co-ordination is to produce information for decision-making and
strategic work.
In the development of services in the different
programme areas the goal will be, where possible and taking account of
the nature of the service, independence of distribution channel and
terminal device (mobile phone, PC, digital television, …).
With regard to practical trials it will necessary
to select areas and locations, where trials will be made for as long
as network positioning services and other location services are not
available nationwide. Interaction between co-ordination and the
application projects will be necessary here as well.
Figure 3. Structure of Personal
Navigation (NAVI) Programme in Finland.
CONCLUSION
Location-based services and personal navigation
have a huge potential. Over hundreds of millions of users have been
estimated to exist in the year 2005. The location services and
geographic information infrastructure will be taken in use by
consumers who perhaps have never heard about coordinate systems. First
time in the history of mankind the maps and geographic information in
general will meet a real mass market. Shall that change anything, we
will see.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Durlacher Research. Mobile Commerce Report. London November 1999.
Durlacher Corporation Plc. http://www.durlacher.com/fr-research-reps.htm
Draft new work item proposal: Geographic information - Location
Based
Services Tracking and Navigation, ISO/TC 211 N 1063, 2001-02-12
Draft new work item proposal: Geographic information - Location
Based
Services Possible Standards, ISO/TC 211 N 1062, 2001-02-12
Jeremy Green, Dario Betti, John Davison. Mobile Location Services
– Market Strategies. London December 2000. Ovum Ltd.
Location Interoperability Forum (LIF) Statement. May 2000. http://www.locationforum.org/documents/LIF-Statement.pdf
Rainio, Antti (ed.). Personal Navigation. NAVI Programme 2000–2002.
Espoo 2000. Technical Research Centre of Finland, VTT Research Notes
2023. http://www.inf.vtt.fi/pdf/tiedotteet/2000/T2038.pdf
CONTACT
Antti Rainio
Managing Director
Navinova Ltd.
Tekniikantie 12
FIN-02150 Espoo
FINLAND
Tel. + 358 50 520 8605
Fax + 358 9 2517 2555
E-mail: antti.rainio@navinova.com
Internet: http://www.navi-ohjelma.fi
26 March 2001
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