7th United Nations Regional Cartographic Conference for the Americas
United Nations, New York, USA
23 January 2001
SPATIAL INFORMATION MANAGEMENT IN THE 21st CENTURY
Robert W. Foster, Matt Higgins and Jes Ryttersgaard, International
Federation of Surveyors
INTRODUCTION
In the paper "The Digital Earth", written by the American
Vice President Al Gore states following:
"A new wave of technological innovation is allowing us to
capture, store, process and display an unprecedented amount of
information about our planet and a wide variety of environmental and
cultural phenomena. Much of this information will be georeferenced. The
hard part of taking advantage of this flood of geospatial information
will be turning raw data into understandable information".
New technologies will give us new methods for data capture. Remote
sensing will give us cheaper data. Real time positioning will
revolutionise the traditional fieldwork, etc. The available data will be
used as well in public and private administration as in business. Data
from different sources and data with differing accuracies will be used in
new combinations.
To optimize and rationalize the use of data national and regional
users, as well public as private, will demand nationwide homogeneous data
sets. In a few years no one will think of spatial data as something
special. Spatial data will be integrated in all kinds of information
systems.
Some of the preconditions for successful implementation of spatial data
in society are the establishment of a Spatial Data Infrastructure and
comprehensive knowledge on organizational structures, technological
developments and data-collection methods.
SPATIAL INFORMATION AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Agenda 21 and The Habitat II Global Plan of Action address the need for
information, development of appropriate databases and exchange of
information as conditions for creating the basis for sustainable
development in all regions of the world. The global society faces great
problems concerning urbanisation and the influence of urbanisation on
coastal zones and environmental conditions overall. Ongoing development
includes globalisation of both environmental problems and trades.
It is generally accepted that Spatial Information is an indispensable
part of the basic infrastructure in the individual country. It is often
stated that spatial information affects 80% of human decision-making.
Spatial Information is a resource on a par with personnel, funds and
other resources. Use of spatial information produces a direct or indirect
possibility of increased efficiency in all sectors of public
administration, in the political decision-making process as well as in the
private sector.
Regardless of the stage of development, there are innumerable
applications for spatial information. The following are some examples of
major, but also very different, areas of application:
- transportation infrastructure in a region,
- health monitoring programmes,
- cadastre projects,
- land management and spatial planning,
- socio-economic issues,
- monitoring of environmental issues,
- environmental impact assessment,
- conservation projects,
- natural resource management.
This variety of applications suggests that users will have very
different backgrounds. There will be a need for comprehensible
instructions on the possibilities and limitations of data from the
individual data collections and there is a need for user-friendly,
efficient distribution systems.
Spatial Information Management becomes an important discipline in both
developed and developing countries and in countries in transition.
SPATIAL DATA INFRASTRUCTURE
Administrators and politicians are beginning to recognise spatial
information as well as a national resource as a part of the basic
infrastructure that needs to be efficiently co-ordinated and managed in
the interest of the nation. It is important to develop policies for
standardisation, legal aspects, pricing, distribution, etc.
Spatial Data Infrastructure is conceived to be: an umbrella of
policies, standards and procedures under which organisations and
technologies interact to foster more efficient use, management and
production of spatial data.
FIG Commission 3 has, on the background of the recent developments,
gathered the following experiences and visions on spatial data
infrastructure.
Experiences
- National Spatial data Infrastructure (NSDI) is an asset for all
nations in general. It should be considered as a key part of wider
infrastructure assets such as roads, telecommunication networks etc.
- Establishing of a Spatial Information Infrastructure demands
co-operation/partnership between the public and the private sectors
and amongst the variety of professions involved.
- Given the complexity of existing institutional structures, one can
expect conflicts when seeking co-operation in NSDI strategy
formulation and implementation.
- NSDI can proceed even if a formal policy document (top down
approach) does not exist. It is possible to proceed with certain
operational level activities (bottom up approach) while the policy is
being formulated. These activities can themselves drive and encourage
policy.
- Every NSDI will be different, depending on cultural needs, social
evolution, economic reality and national ambitions. The environmental
framework and the market demand will shape the most appropriate SDI.
- NSDI policy must be flexible to address rapidly changing needs and
wishes of the users and adapt to changing technologies.
- Varied applications and services through a project-oriented approach
will bring reality to a NSDI. An over-emphasis on data acquisition,
without a market linked application, will not provide any momentum for
further development.
- Visualisation, modelling and analysing activities will be the focus
of value-added services in the years to come.
Visions
- Cadastral, topographic and thematic datasets should adopt the same
overarching philosophy and data model to achieve multi-purpose data
integration, both vertically and horizontally.
- To be able to integrate and share data we need to focus on research
to understand and resolve semantic differences in data.
- To be able to offer the different users (institutional as well as
private) the full potential of spatial information independent of
space and time, the full range of spatial data, actual as well as
historical, should be made accessible and available
- Alternative possibilities for the presentation and interpretations
of spatial information, including integration of knowledge, should be
considered.
- The commercial and contractual frameworks for co-operation and the
associated business models will be key issues in the further
development of NSDI.
- To be able to adapt to the e-market rethinking of pricing, rights
and access to data is necessary.
ORGANISATIONAL ISSUES
For a long time, EDP was used primarily to automate known working
processes. With the available information technology, it is now realistic
to reassess working processes and co-operation models. Now it is possible
to create models across the existing administrative borders, as well as
across borders between the public and private sectors.
Information technology makes it possible to separate authority from
administration. It is possible to outsource parts of the public
administration, and to involve the private sector in the establishment,
operation and updating of the basic geographic and alphanumeric data
collections.
Introducing information technology is so crucial to an organisation
that the responsibility for the implementation has to be deeply rooted in
the top management.
Unlike other resources, spatial information does not suffer any wear
from repeated use. Different investigations show that the real benefit of
investments in spatial data increases dramatically with the multiple use
of data.
Multiple use demands co-operation between the primary user and other
possible users on common data models. Object definitions, common
identification, keys, even agreements between agencies will be required.
With the modelling, analysis and visualisation possibilities inherent
in even cheap GIS solutions, it is now possible to present plans, solution
proposals, etc. in a form which does not require great reading skills. It
is becoming possible to involve citizens even if they lack the requisite
educational background.
The use of spatial information creates transparency in the
decision-making. At the same time this implies better service for
politicians, NGOs and citizens, and efficient support for the democratic
process.
Information technology offers many possibilities for establishing
efficient communication and distribution of information. This also applies
in those parts of the world where the general communications
infrastructure is developed only to a limited extent.
With Internet technology and by using the world wide web, it is
possible, at the same time, to create cheaper solutions at national level
and to open up existing data collections to the outside world.
THE EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGE
Developing countries as well as countries in transition are facing
problems such as capacity building and the lack of a developed private
surveying community. Often they experience an intensive brain-drain.
In this way the individual country becomes very dependent on
international consultancies and contractors, and it is nearly impossible
for surveyors to establish the basis for sustainable business.
Education is a problem. It is urgent to establish sufficient
possibilities for education and training on all professional levels.
Hitherto it has been necessary to send key employees on training and
education stays in donor countries, at international training centres, for
instance.
The new technology offers completely new possibilities for training and
education. Distance learning and distance training are becoming important
strategic parameters in developing countries. It is now possible to offer
training and education on site at all levels with whichever specialists
might be required. This will minimise implementation time. At the same
time, it will be possible to be less dependent on key persons because it
will not be costly to involve more employees in the training and
education. The individual country should be very much aware of the
distance learning activities e.g. in some of the former eastern European
countries.
The traditional employee with a medium or high level education in
geo-related issues does have a comprehensive knowledge on IT and
informatics, cartography, photogrammetry and surveying.
At the same time there is a need for employees with new qualifications
such as management, standards, data models, meta data, access to data,
infrastructure architecture, intellectual property right, copyright,
prizing of data and organizational developments. There is a need also for
knowledge on analyzis, modelling, visualization and visual communication.
TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS
Information technology plays a very important role as a tool for use
and integration of data both at local and national levels. It is used to
create a model of a part of the world which in turn is used for
manipulation, analyzis and visualization purposes.
For a long time cost-intensive technology has been a barrier to
effective utilisation of information technology. Today the tools are cheap
mass-produced hardware and standard software like databases and
spreadsheets.
This trend towards cheaper, simpler solutions is continuing. With Internet
and intranet technology it is possible to make data and information
available inexpensively to both traditional users and new groups of users,
including individual citizens. Internet technology makes it possible to
open up traditional archives to interested users. Web-GIS in which the
users handle geographic information using standard Web browsers is a
reality.
SPATIAL DATA AND SPATIAL INFORMATION
High costs are involved in the establishment and maintenance of the
necessary spatial data; many people are endeavouring to utilise
alternative methods for collecting data and to use other data types.
To facilitate and minimise costs in connection with changes in
technology it is essential to use robust data models and as far as
possible it is best to base developments on internationally approved or de
facto industry standards, data-exchange formats, and so on.
The costs are dependent on the level of ambition. On account of both
the high initial costs and the long implementation periods, in a
preliminary phase it is an idea to divide the future use of spatial data
and spatial information into three groups: planning, administration and
projects.
For planning purposes, low-cost and short production time is more
important than accuracy and completeness. For administration, the focus is
on the completeness of specific themes or objects and on the possibilities
for updating. Project data is normally characterised by high demands on
accuracy and the content of specific details. In contrast to
administrative data, planning and project data has a limited lifetime.
SPATIAL INTEGRATION
The capabilities of data collection technologies along with the demands
of GIS and the extension of SDI concepts will require high levels of
spatial integration. However, it is difficult to predict what other data a
user may want to integrate. Therefore, data itself must be as "integratable"
as possible by being in a common reference system and to a known quality.
INTEGRATION OF TECHNOLOGIES
The digital nature of the technologies will enable them to be
integrated to mitigate each other's shortcomings. This can already be seen
at several levels. At the international level we see collocation of
various complementary observation techniques such as very long baseline
interferometry, satellite laser ranging, absolute gravimetry, high
precision tide gauges and satellite positioning. So called mobile mapping
systems are bringing imaging and scanning technologies together with
satellite and inertial positioning (in airborne, marine and vehicle
platforms). At the level of the survey party we see integration of total
stations and real time satellite positioning. As well as physical
integration in the field, there is also much effort going into integration
at the data processing level, under headings such as data fusion.
SOME SPECIFIC TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS
Specific technologies must reach a certain level of maturity before
integration can be considered. In parallel with integration developments
then, it is also important to watch the development of individual
technologies. That enables one to keep technological developments in
perspective and select the appropriate data collection technology for a
given task and a given budget.
With that in mind and looking to future technologies, an overriding
trend will be continued development of space based technologies. A new
generation of imaging satellites is coming that will cover a range of
spectral and spatial resolutions, including metre level resolution. A
spectacular example is the recent Shuttle Radar Topography Mission that
produced global topographic data and a global DEM over 80% of Earth's land
mass (between 60°N and 56°S) during an 11-day flight.
Satellite positioning will continue to have a profound effect on data
collection techniques. The Global Positioning System (GPS) will continue
to hold centre stage for some time but influences beyond GPS alone will
begin to have impact under the more generic term, Global Navigation
Satellite Systems (GNSS). Developments we are already seeing include the
growing importance of the Russian GLONASS system, the development of
augmentations systems (ground and/or space based) and the European
community's desire for more influence through its Galileo program.
Within GPS itself, a major milestone has been the removal of selective
availability (SA) leading to major improvements in the accuracy available
for point positioning using inexpensive handheld receivers. This is just
the first in many improvements planned for GPS. Developments under the
heading of GPS modernisation, include adding a second civil frequency and
eventually a third frequency; improvements that will bring increased
accuracy and reliability for all users.
These changes will not bring a significant increase in the accuracy of
GPS surveying, already at the centimetre accuracy end of the market, but
the additional frequencies will improve reliability. The major influence
on GPS surveying in coming years will be the continuing trend to the
so-called real time kinematic technique (RTK). Networks of permanent
stations supporting real time and post processed GPS surveying will be
increasingly important parts of the Spatial Data Infrastructure.
As well as these newer technologies, traditional data collection
technologies like total stations and levels will continue to improve. Like
everything else, these technologies will become increasingly digital and
allow for easier integration of the data sets gathered. Improvements to
the supporting software will assist in this regard with tighter
integration of GIS and surveying software.
ASPECTS OF SDI TO SUPPORT DATA COLLECTION
It will be important for Spatial Data Infrastructure to recognise and
support these developments in data collection. At the softer end of the
infrastructure, work is required to ensure that the appropriate technical
standards and specifications are in place. Any data collection can then be
carried out to these standards and specifications and according to
processes that enable compliance.
Another important part of any SDI is the spatial referencing system
that ensures all positions conform to well defined horizontal and vertical
datums and to a known quality. As outlined earlier, this ensures data is
as "integratable" as possible. The spatial referencing part of
the SDI includes geodetic reference marks, supplemented to an appropriate
degree with GPS base stations. The system also includes databases and
mechanisms for accessing the required spatial referencing information. A
major task for spatial referencing is making local datums more compatible
with the International Terrestrial Reference Frame and thus with WGS84 as
used in GPS. As well as horizontal datum improvements, this includes the
need for appropriate geoid models to enable accurate height measurement
using satellite positioning. Looking further into the future, countries
such as Japan and New Zealand, where crustal deformation is an issue, are
realising that the fourth dimension of time will be increasingly important
in their spatial referencing system.
SENSITIVITY TO CULTURAL HERITAGE AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Moving on from the SDI into applications, there is increasing demand
for data collection processes that are sensitive to cultural heritage and
environmental issues. On a global scale, geodetic knowledge is combining
with many other disciplines to help understand global processes. Satellite
radar altimetry is being used to measure sea surface height and
temperature; vital to understanding climate variation. Satellite geodesy
is monitoring the stability of high precision tide gauges that are
measuring sea level variations linked to global warming.
On local and regional scales, non-invasive remote sensing technologies
like photogrammetry and spectral and laser scanning are already in use in
applications ranging from archaeological sites to assessing tree canopy
cover to finding routes through culturally or environmentally sensitive
areas. These technologies may be deployed on land and marine vehicles, in
aircraft or satellite based.
AREAS OF CONFLICT
Such non-invasive technologies also have utility in areas where
security of personnel is an issue and direct data collection techniques
may be logistically difficult or even dangerous. This would include areas
of current conflict or areas of past conflict that may have the unwelcome
legacy of land mines.
CONCLUSIONS
It is our duty to promote sustainable development. This requires us to
be unprejudiced and to have an overview. We create the overview by, among
other things, monitoring developments and continuously analysing results.
Information technology is indispensable, but data and information are a
prerequisite. There is a great need for spatial information. However, this
is not solely a question of information. There is a very significant
management element. Spatial Information Management is becoming a major
area of work for surveyors throughout the world.
The FIG working on the issues raised in this paper and on their
application at the local, regional and international level. The specialist
commissions of FIG are well placed to develop practical and appropriate
best practices in spatial information management. The member organizations
of FIG can be strong advocates of those best practices in their countries
of interest. FIG also recognises the need to act at the regional and
international level through cooperation with allied professions and with
agencies of the UN and through its forums like the regional cartographic
conferences and the permanent committees on GIS infrastructure. These
actions demonstrate that the surveying profession is committed to spatial
information management in support of the sustainable development of our
"Digital Earth".
Robert W. Foster
President of FIG
E-mail: rwfoster@juno.com
Matt Higgins
Vice-chair FIG Commission5
E-mail: Matt.HIGGINS@dnr.qld.gov.au
Jes Ryttersgaard
Chair FIG Commision 3
E-mail: jr@kms.dk
International Federation of Surveyors FIG
Lindevangs Alle 4
DK-2000 Frederiksberg
DENMARK
Tel. + 45 3886 1081
Fax + 45 3886 0252
E-mail: FIG@fig.net
Web site: www.fig.net
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